An artisanal coltan mine in the DRC, where local residents mine for coltan on a small scale. Image from Flickr. CC BY-SA 2.0

This article was submitted as part of the Global Voices Climate Justice fellowship, which pairs journalists from Sinophone and Global Majority countries to investigate the effects of Chinese development projects abroad. Find more stories here.

In African countries, Western powers such as the US, UK, Russia, and Canada, alongside Asian superpowers like India and China, have long been extracting African resources to take advantage of its rich mineral deposits and abundant resources.

Though there have been numerous agreements on the governmental level to protect Africa’s resource rights and sovereignty, foreign companies from these countries often find loopholes to exploit these agreements or subvert them altogether through illegal resource extraction.

There is a long tradition of artisanal mineral mining in Africa, an often-illegal practice where individuals or small groups of community members dig small-scale mines and extract resources by hand. Though this used to be common among low-income citizens and rural communities in Africa, illegal mining is no longer the domain of Africa's poor. Some cases that have attracted the most attention in recent years are those of Chinese nationals in African countries such as the DRC, Mali, Senégal, and Ghana.

Arrests on the ground

Various types of mining sites can be found in Africa today, from large industrial ones to small-scale, illegal ones. While it's impossible to know the exact number of mines China operates in Africa, one thing is clear: Chinese companies are a major presence in the continent’s mining industries — particularly for minerals essential in the green energy transition, such as copper, cobalt, and lithium. However, as its presence on the continent grows, so does the illegal exploitation of mining resources in many African countries, which is straining diplomatic relations and causing tension with local communities.

For example, a Business Insider Africa article from July 2025 refers to a diplomatic conflict between China and Ghana that may arise from the illegal exploitation of the Galamsey gold mines. This isn’t the first time the issue has come up in the region, as two Chinese nationals were arrested for the same crime in April 2021. A little over a month later, in June of the same year, ten more Chinese citizens were arrested for their involvement in illegal mining.

A hearing for three Chinese nationals who were arrested in Ghana. Screenshot from YouTube.

In January 2025, three Chinese nationals were arrested in possession of gold ingots and EUR 800,000 (over USD 920,000) in South Kivu in the east of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Their arrest comes two weeks after the arrest of seventeen other Chinese citizens involved in an illegal mineral operation.

Although China has not commented on the arrest of its nationals in the DRC, it has adopted a protective stance in Ghana.

Is China defending the indefensible?

Despite the mounting arrests, Chinese authorities have largely avoided acknowledging their citizens’ role in illegal mining. Tong Defa, China's ambassador to Ghana, rejected the unilateral responsibility of Chinese nationals in an interview with Business Insider Africa:

The issue did not originate from the Chinese. Some of those who are even caught red-handed are simply migrant workers trying to make a living.

The Chinese ambassador believes that his fellow citizens have been helped by Ghanaian citizens who have made these illegal operations effective. He adds:

The perception is unfair to me, personally, and to the majority of Chinese nationals here. When I post on social media, comments often suggest that Galamsey is entirely caused by China, which is a significant injustice.

For Tong Defa, Ghanaians should be grateful to China for its investment in infrastructure and turn a blind eye to potential illegal activities.

Chinese companies have built numerous buildings, roads and ports. Yet, do ordinary Ghanaians truly recognize these efforts, or do they consistently associate us solely with Galamsey?

Such a reaction caused strong reactions among Ghanaian citizens and civil society organizations, who are increasingly in conflict with Chinese companies in these countries.

Money and illegally mined gold that were confiscated from three Chinese nationals who were arrested in the DRC. Screenshot from YouTube.

Reactions from various stakeholders

In October 2024, many Ghanaian citizens, including artists, members of local communities, and civil society actors, expressed their dissatisfaction with foreign companies’ mining practices.

John Manful, an agricultural development consultant, speaking to BBC Africa in October 2024, acknowledged that some foreigners engage in illegal small-scale gold mining, which is reserved for Ghanaian citizens. He stated:

L'exploitation minière illégale à petite échelle existe depuis des décennies au Ghana. Cependant, ces dernières années, elle est devenue incontrôlable et a eu des effets catastrophiques.

Small-scale illegal mining has existed for decades in Ghana. However, in recent years, it has become uncontrollable and has had catastrophic effects.

And according to journalist Alexis Akwagyiram, quoted in an Africa Defense Forum publication, the sharp rise in this phenomenon is due to the massive influx of Chinese nationals:

Les entrepreneurs chinois sont à l’origine d’une grande partie de la hausse récente en s’associant avec les chefs locaux et, dans certains cas, en fournissant des machines d’excavation sophistiquées.

Chinese entrepreneurs are behind much of the recent increase, partnering with local chiefs and, in some cases, providing sophisticated excavation machinery.

One of the direct consequences of these practices is the pollution of rivers that serve as water sources for local communities. During the gold extraction process, some Chinese companies use products such as mercury and cyanide, thereby contaminating these waters, which change color and become undrinkable for local populations. Dr. John Manful states:

Le mercure peut rester dans l'eau jusqu'à 1 000 ans. L'eau de ces rivières est si trouble qu'elle est imbuvable. Le mercure pouvait affecter l'ensemble de la chaîne alimentaire, car il s'accumule dans les poissons et peut pénétrer dans les cultures irriguées par l'eau. Nous nous empoisonnons lentement.

Mercury can remain in the water for up to 1,000 years. The water in these rivers is so murky that it is undrinkable. Mercury could affect the entire food chain, as it accumulates in fish and can enter crops irrigated by the water. We are slowly poisoning ourselves.

Israel Derrick Apeti, a Ghanaian painter, uses this polluted water to create artwork denouncing this harmful practice.

 

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A post shared by Israel Derrick Apeti (@enil__art)

What about African countries?

In the face of what can only be described as a scandal, the responsibilities of governments must be shared. The case of the DRC is a major incident that undermines the efforts of the Congolese authorities in their fight against the illegal exploitation of minerals.

However, the responsibility doesn't rest only with the Chinese entrepreneurs. Many investors collude with local elites, relying on local labor to circumvent mining laws, utilize loopholes such as weak or ineffective sanctions, clandestine routes, illegal access to industrial sites, and more. For example, in the DRC mining operation where three Chinese were arrested, they were cooperating with four Congolese citizens, as one source describes:

Les trois Chinois, leur interprète, le chauffeur et deux militaires de l’armée congolaise qui assuraient leur sécurité ont été arrêtés à bord d’un 4×4…

The three Chinese, their interpreter, the driver and two Congolese army soldiers ensuring their safety were arrested in a 4×4…

In a publication on X, DRC journalist Stanis Bujakera Tshiamala denounces illegal operations on the Boss Mining site:

#RDC: Une reprise des opérations illicites a été constatée sur la concession de Boss Mining. “Cette situation inacceptable exige une intervention urgente pour rétablir l’ordre, protéger les communautés locales et mettre fin au pillage des ressources. Des mesures immédiates et fermes doivent être prises pour expulser les acteurs illégaux et garantir la sécurité de la région”, dit source. pic.twitter.com/hIY8rMQG9s

— Stanis Bujakera Tshiamala (@StanysBujakera) June 7, 2025

#DRC: Illegal operations have resumed at the Boss Mining concession. “This unacceptable situation requires urgent intervention to restore order, protect local communities, and put an end to the plundering of resources. Immediate and decisive measures must be taken to expel illegal actors and ensure the security of the region,” said the source. pic.twitter.com/hIY8rMQG9s — Stanis Bujakera Tshiamala (@StanysBujakera) June 7, 2025

As for Ghana, civil society organizations say the authorities’ inaction only encourages illegal gold mining in the country. According to Andrew Edwin Arthur, a founding member of a coalition of civil society organizations, high-ranking officials are involved in corruption, which encourages this phenomenon. He tells RFI:

Ce que nous pouvons faire, c’est de nommer et de couvrir de honte les personnes haut placées directement impliquées dans le galamsey. Nous donnons un ultimatum de deux semaines au gouvernement pour qu’il interdise réellement toutes les activités de galamsey.

What we can do is name and shame the senior people directly involved in galamsey. We are giving the government a two-week ultimatum to really ban all galamsey activities.

While maintaining its goals of conquering the international mining market, will China be able to rein in the companies and citizens involved in this illegal exploitation? Or will it turn a blind eye and condone this violation of local communities’ rights?

The silence of the Chinese authorities on the many cases reported on the continent today constitutes a strong argument for those who see China's presence in Africa as another form of modern-day colonization.